François Villon

Ted Kooser declared that “When 'I' says something happened, I believe it happened, and if something awful has happened to 'I,' I feel for the poet.” “Le Testament” can primarily be seen as an autobiographical work and through Villon’s dual presence, which expresses the ‘I’ in a number of ways, he is able to create such an alliance with the reader. Joan Aleshire said that “The 'I' is an agent of experience which, if not immediately intelligible to us in its particulars, becomes so as the argument is presented through sound, syntax, and imagery.” This is particularly the case for Villon’s work; containing innumerable private, inside jokes and use of ‘jargon’ in some of his poems, it may appear as though Villon is ostracising many readers. This emphasises the importance of Villon’s dual presence; through the use of clever poetic devices which all contribute to his dual presence, Villon is able to maintain a bond with the reader and stimulate the reader’s curiosity - poetry is intended for an audience. Villon’s dual presence throughout the work therefore allows him to write about himself, remaining loyal to the ‘will’ aspect of a testament whilst still producing poetry of interest to a variety of audiences.

Whilst the poet will automatically be the ‘writer’ of his work, it is significantly more challenging to be ‘written’. In order to achieve this, Villon associates himself with certain words. For example the word “povre” - this allows Villon to include himself in poems even where they appear to be told from another person’s point of view. The association between Villon and “povre” can be seen from the beginning of “Le Testament” - “je demeure, povre de sens et de savoir”, “Mais aux povres qui n’ont de quoy, comme moy..” . Later on in the same poem it is then repeated five times in relation to Villon within only two stanzas: “Povre je suis de ma jeunesse, De povre et de petite extrasse”, “Povreté tous nous suit et trace”, “De povreté me garmentant”, “Mieulx vault vivre soubz gros bureau povre, qu’avoir esté seigneur et pourrir soubz riche tombeau !”. The relationship between “povre” and Villon created through the repetition of the word “povre” allows Villon to acquire a dual presence later on even without the use of “je” or even in poems written from another’s point of view. For example, the “Ballade que Villon feit à la requeste de sa mère, pour prier nostre-dame” is written from his mother’s point of view, yet when the word “povrette” appears (“Femme je suis povrette et ancienne”) the reader is automatically reminded of Villon, who now also seems to feature in the poem. This therefore enables Villon to also be ‘written’; whilst everything said in the poem may seem to be expressed by his mother, it may also be true for Villon himself. This allows Villon to express certain feelings without directly speaking about himself and therefore makes for a more interesting reading. For example, “En ceste foy je vueil vivre et mourir” could also be thought by Villon himself and not only his mother. By expressing himself through his mother, Villon is able to appeal to a variety of audiences, enabling them to more easily identify with Villon. For example in poems such as “Ballade à s’amye”, Villon also associates himself with words such as “escolier” and “follastre”.

The association created between the poet and “povre” also allows Villon to cleverly place himself amongst different kinds of individuals. For example in the “Double ballade sur le même propos”, Villon refers to mythical, immortal individuals; “Samson en perdit ses lunettes”, “Orpheus, le doux menestrier”, “Bon chien Cerberus a troys testes”, “Et Narcissus, le bel honnestes”, “Sardana le preux chevalier”, “David le roy”, “Ammon..Herodes..Sainct Jean-Baptistes” and then suddenly “De moy, pauvre, je veuil parler”. Villon places himself amongst these individuals and this could be seen as an attempt to also be ‘immortalised’. However, the very placement of Villon in the same poem as these immortal individuals could also be seen as Villon’s attempt to make the immortal

mortal by placing them amongst him. In this way, it would appear as Villon's way of saying that everyone, rich or poor, powerful or powerless, is the same and that everyone will suffer the same fate. This is a theme which appears throughout “Le Testament” - in the last ballade, even princes are destined to death whilst in the “Lays” (CLX) Villon expresses how after death, everyone is equal, it is impossible to distinguish one from another. The multiple meanings carried by the word “povre” according to context also allows Villon to reveal his different characteristics in a subtle yet intriguing way. In the “Double ballade sur le même propos”, the word “povre” relates to Villon’s ‘poorness’ in love whilst elsewhere it relates to his lack of purpose and knowledge; “povre de sens et de savoir”. When “povre” reappears at the very end of Villon’s work - “ Icy se clost le Testament, Et finist du povre Villon” - it has now encompassed all the meanings that Villon has previously associated with it and Villon leaves us (within

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